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John Ray and the Study of Plants

A The 17th-century English scholar and botanist John Ray was well aware that he lived through, and participated in, a profound revolution in the way people interacted with nature. In the preface to his Synopsis of British Plants, published in 1690, he gave thanks that he had been born at a time when traditional dependence on the teaching of the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE) had given way to a new philosophy, based on experiment and observation of the real world, that we now call science.

B Ray was born in 1627. His father was a village blacksmith, and his mother was also a respected member of the community, a healer who was an expert in folk medicine and the use of herbs to treat ailments. Ray must have stood out as an unusually bright boy among his schoolmates, and his talents were recognised by a church official, Samuel Covell, who had graduated from Cambridge University in 1600, and maintained his links with his university. Through his influence, Ray was admitted to Cambridge University in 1644 at the age of seventeen - a huge step for a village blacksmith's son. There he made a solid start, and quickly gained a reputation as a brilliant student. He studied the classics (Greek, Latin and Hebrew) and mathematics, but there was nothing yet we would now call science in the curriculum. After graduating in 1648, he became a minor member of staff at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was appointed Lecturer in Greek in 1651, Lecturer in Mathematics in 1653, and Lecturer in Humanities in 1655.

C Almost immediately after graduating, Ray also seems to have developed the interest to which he would devote the rest of his life: the study of the natural world. He explains this conversion into a naturalist - in particular into a botanist - in the preface to his first book, the Cambridge Catalogue of English Plants. Here Ray tells us that he suffered an illness in his early twenties, and was advised to take long walks and ride in the fresh air while recovering. While doing this, he became interested in the local flora, and finding nobody able to teach him, Ray investigated it for himself. He then went on to pass on the knowledge he acquired to others.

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D By the mid-1650s, even the first-year students at Trinity College were able to identify the plants and flowers around Cambridge, as they were being taught (unofficially - none of this was part of their formal education) by Ray. Many of them were the sons of landowners, and so had a natural, if amateurish, interest in country matters. But a few of them took his efforts to understand the natural world much more seriously. One of these, Francis Willughby, later played an important part in Ray's life.

E Having himself had no authority on the subject of plants on which to draw, Ray also started work on what would become his Cambridge Catalogue of English Plants. The work was not published until 1660 because, as Ray explained in the preface, he had to start from scratch:

"I had first to become familiar with the literature, to compare the plants that I found with the pictures, and when there seemed to be a resemblance, to go fully into any unknown descriptions. Gaining skill by experience, I acquired at last the ability to recognise to what tribe and family similars or could be assigned; this taught me to search for similarities and saved a vast deal of labour, which others would have spent in their difficulties. I was eager to make the most of this and was fortunate to share my enthusiasm with my friends..."

F Ray's Cambridge Catalogue of English Plants was much more than a simple list of species. It gave the names of plants found in the area around Cambridge and included information about where they grew and how common they were. In doing this, Ray was producing something that would be of practical use to students and other readers interested in the local natural world. At the same time, the book showed his determination to describe plants accurately, on the basis of direct examination rather than reliance on old authorities. In this respect, it reflected the spirit of the new learning that Ray admired.

G Ray's studies of plants were only the beginning of a much larger ambition. With the support of Francis Willughby, he began to imagine a more comprehensive investigation of nature, one that would attempt to classify living things according to careful observation of their shared characteristics. This was an ambitious undertaking, especially at a time when many aspects of the natural world remained poorly described. Yet Ray believed that by collecting evidence systematically and comparing related forms, it would be possible to build a more reliable understanding of nature than scholars had possessed before. >> 🔥 Nhắn zalo 0905834420 join group zalo Hóng đề thi máy 4 skills để cập nhật đề thi thật 4 kĩ năng hằng ngày [Kèm giải & đề làm online]

Questions 21-24

Complete the summary below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 21-24 on your answer sheet.

A New Approach to Knowledge

John Ray was a scholar and self-taught botanist, whose work reflected the 21 that was taking place during the 17th century in people's way of thinking about the natural world. This new approach is the basis of the modern field of 22. It represented a complete break from the ideas of Aristotle, which had dominated thinking up until that time.

As Ray himself explained, his interest in plants was aroused after graduating, when he had to spend time outdoors after a period of 23. He taught himself, in addition to many Cambridge 24 plants, which was published in 1660.

Questions 25 and 26

Choose TWO letters, A-E.

Write the correct letters in boxes 25 and 26 on your answer sheet.

Which TWO of the following statements are true of Ray's early life?

A. His teacher recommended that he should go to university.
B. His school record was not exceptional in any way.
C. He was helped by a former student of Cambridge University.
D. His parents were both valued by the people in their local area.
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READING PASSAGE 2

You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 on pages 8 and 9.

Questions 14-20

Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.

Write the correct number, i-ix, in boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

i. Ray's account of his working methods
ii. The botanical expert who inspired Ray
iii. A succession of academic achievements
iv. Ray's informal tuition
v. Ray's appreciation of his contemporary academic culture
vi. A childhood interest in plants
vii. Plans for a bold new project
viii. A description of the content of Ray's first book
ix. A change of direction for Ray

1. Paragraph A

2. Paragraph B

3. Paragraph C

4. Paragraph D

5. Paragraph E

6. Paragraph F

7. Paragraph G

21. revolution
22. science
23. illness
24. Catalogue
25. C
26. D
27. v
28. iii
29. ix
30. iv
31. i
32. viii
33. vii

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