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Reading Passage: Rewards for scientific achievement

While the Nobel Prizes are over 115 years old, rewards for scientific achievement have been around much longer. As early as the 17th century, at the very origins of modern experimental science, promoters of science realized the need for some system of recognition and reward that would provide incentive for advances in the field.

Before the prize, it was the gift that dominated in science. Precursors to modern scientists – the early astronomers, philosophers, physicians, alchemists and engineers – offered wonderful discoveries, inventions and works of literature or art as gifts to powerful patrons, often royalty. Many scientists prefaced their publications with extravagant letters of dedication; they might, or they might not, be rewarded with a gift in return. Eventually, different kinds of incentives, including prizes and awards, as well as new, salaried academic positions, became more common and the favor of particular wealthy patrons diminished in importance. But at the height of the Renaissance, early scientists relied on gifts from powerful princes to compensate and advertise their efforts.>> 🔥 Form đăng kí giải đề thi thật IELTS 4 kĩ năng kèm bài giải bộ đề 100 đề PART 2 IELTS SPEAKING quý đang thi (update hàng tuần) từ IELTS TUTOR

With courtiers all vying for a patron’s attention, scientific gifts had to be presented with drama and flair. The astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) presented his newly discovered moons of Jupiter to the Medici dukes of Italy as a “gift” that was literally out of this world. In return, the Medici family “ennobled” Galileo with the title and position of court philosopher and mathematician. If a gift succeeded, the gift-giver might, like Galileo in this case, be fortunate enough to receive a gift in return. Gift-givers could not, however, predict what form a patron’s gift would take, and they might find themselves burdened with offers they couldn’t refuse. Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), the great Danish Renaissance astronomer, received everything from exotic animals to chemical secrets in return for his discoveries.

By the early-17th century, scientific promoters realized that gift-giving was ill-suited to encouraging experimental science. Experimentation required many individuals to collect data in many places across long periods of time. Gifts emphasized competitive individualism at a time when scientific collaboration and the often humdrum work of empirical observation were paramount.

While it was accepted that some competitive rivalry helped to inspire and advance science, scientific reformers believed that too much led to the ostentation that too often plagued courtly gift-giving. Most of all, reformers feared an individual would not tackle a problem that couldn’t be finished and presented to a patron in his or her lifetime – or even if they did, their findings might die with them.

For these reasons, promoters of experimental science saw the reform of rewards as integral to radical changes in the pace and scale of scientific discovery. For example, Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626), lord chancellor of England and an influential booster of experimental science, emphasized the importance even of “approximations” or unfinished attempts at reaching a particular goal. Instead of dissipating their efforts attempting to appease patrons, many researchers, he hoped, could be stimulated to work toward the same ends via a well-publicized research wish list. Bacon coined the term “desiderata”, still used by researchers today to denote widespread research goals. He also suggested many ingenious ways to advance discovery by stimulating the human hunger for fame; a row of statues celebrating famous inventors of the past, for example, could be paired with a row of empty plinths upon which researchers might imagine their own busts one day resting.

Bacon’s techniques inspired one of his chief admirers, the reformer Samuel Hartlib (circa 1600–1662) to collect many schemes for reforming the system of recognition. One proposed that rewards should go not only “to such as exactly hit the marke, but even to those that probably misse it,” because their errors would stimulate others and make “active braines to beate about for New Inventions.” Hartlib planned a centralized office systematizing rewards for those who “expect Rewards for Services done to the King or State, and know not where to pitch and what to desire.”

Collaborative scientific societies, beginning in the mid-17th century, distanced rewards from the whims and demands of individual patrons. The periodicals that many new scientific societies started publishing offered a new medium that allowed authors to tackle ambitious research problems that might not individually produce a complete publication pleasing to a dedicatee. The societies saw their periodicals as a means to entice discovery by offering credit. Today’s Leopoldina, the German national scientific society, founded its publication in 1670. According to its bylaws, those who might not otherwise publish their findings could see them “exhibited to the world … with the praiseworthy mention of their name” – an important step on the way to standardizing scientific citation.

States might also offer rewards for solutions to problems, most famously in the case of the prize offered by the British government in 1714 for figuring out how to determine longitude at sea. Some in the 17th century likened this long-sought discovery to the philosopher’s stone. The idea of using a prize to highlight a specific problem is alive and well today. In fact, some contemporary scientific prizes, such as the Simons Foundation’s “Cracking the Glass Problem,” set forth specific questions that still need to be resolved.

The shift from gift-giving to prize-giving completely transformed the rules of engagement in scientific discovery. Of course, the need for monetary support hasn’t gone away. Obtaining financial support can still be a sizable part of what it takes to get science done today. Succeeding in grant competitions might seem mystifying, and winning a career-changing Nobel might come as a bolt out of the blue. But researchers can take comfort that they no longer have to present their innovations on bended knee as wondrous gifts that will appeal to the whims of individual patrons.>> 🔥 Nhắn zalo 0905834420 join group zalo Hóng đề thi máy 4 skills để cập nhật đề thi thật 4 kĩ năng hằng ngày [Kèm giải & đề làm online]

Questions

Questions 27 – 30:
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading Passage?
Choose:

• YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer

• NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer

• NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

1. The belief that progress depended on scientists benefiting from their work dates from the 17th century.
   A YES
   B NO
   C NOT GIVEN

2. Early scientists could be confident of receiving patronage if they dedicated their work appropriately.
   A YES
   B NO
   C NOT GIVEN

3. Galileo considered his discovery of the moons of Jupiter to be one of his most important contributions to science.
   A YES
   B NO
   C NOT GIVEN

4. Some gifts bestowed by patrons were more welcome than others.
   A YES
   B NO
   C NOT GIVEN

Questions 31 – 35:
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

1. What did promoters of science begin to understand by the early-17th century?
   A the benefits of making science more appealing
   B the importance of up-to-date scientific equipment
   C the impact of inaccurate data on scientific research
   D the need for scientists to share their work with one another

2. What was scientific reformers’ greatest concern about the patronage system?
   A It was often restricted to royal courts.
   B It led to unhealthy competition for resources.
   C It resulted in scientists’ work not always being judged on its merits.
   D It encouraged scientists to avoid research that took many years to complete.

3. Why does the writer refer to a row of statues?
   A To propose how research goals should evolve
   B To compare the achievements of different scientists
   C To illustrate how a desire for recognition could be exploited
   D To provide examples of important scientists from the past>> 🔥 IELTS TUTOR gợi ý tham khảo CẦN VIẾT & THU ÂM BAO NHIÊU BÀI ĐỂ ĐẠT 8.0 SPEAKING & 7.0 WRITING?

4. It was accepted under one of Samuel Hartlib’s schemes that
   A inspiration was hard to achieve.
   B failure could bring about positive results.
   C scientists needed assistance in record keeping.
   D scientific research should be given a higher status.

5. What is the writer doing in the eighth paragraph?
   A explaining how journals contributed to scientific progress
   B describing how research projects became more ambitious
   C indicating how scientific societies expanded their membership
   D suggesting how nations attracted the best scientific researchers

Questions 36 – 40:
Complete the summary using the list of words, A–J, below.

Scientific progress has long been encouraged through prizes. A famous case was that of the reward offered in 1714 by the British government to resolve the problem of maritime 36 ________. The practice of prize-giving persists today, and in some cases, for example the Simons Foundation’s ‘Cracking the Glass Problem’, details are provided on the particular areas of 37 ________ that should be focused on. Prize-giving changed the way in which people engaged in scientific discovery. Scientists today may still have to secure 38 ________ for their research. But they should reassure themselves with the fact that although there might be little 39 ________ of them winning a Nobel Prize, at least they no longer have to satisfy the arbitrary 40 ________ of individual patrons.

27–30
27. YES
28. NO
29. NOT GIVEN
30. YES

31–35
31. D
32. D
33. C
34. B
35. A

36–40
36. C
37. E
38. A
39. B
40. D

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